1. Paulo Freire Pedagogy of the Oppressed

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  • čas přidán 22. 08. 2024
  • LECTURE NOTES: www.academia.e...
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Komentáře • 145

  • @I.amBago
    @I.amBago Před 4 měsíci

    Dr. Campbell, I respect what you are doing here with the accessibility to your intellectual property and perspectives. This is exactly what Black/ minority professionals in academia need to be doing for society.

  • @dalebo101
    @dalebo101 Před 3 lety +4

    i was really intimidated with the language he used in the book, you broke it down so i can understand it in a simple way

    • @Dude0000
      @Dude0000 Před rokem

      It's meant to be as it is a religious text. It's esoteric knowledge based upon massive assumptions that have always led to murder justified by the 'oppressor oppressed' dynamic. No, men are not as gods and it is provably dangerous to teach that.

  • @martymakeupartist
    @martymakeupartist Před 10 lety +54

    analysis does not begin till about 4:14

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 12 lety +18

    I'd say montessori school are a move in the right direction. and more online interactivity. Kids can really do more than most think. A stressful [academically] environment is key. Not impossible but difficult enough. In the montessori model, the kid's interests are "tuned" giving the the oppertunity to educate others at this young age is key. I learn stuff from my kids all the time. I usually begin a conversation with them several time a week by saying, "Tell me something new". Self directed

  • @sh3lzpillay23
    @sh3lzpillay23 Před 4 lety +9

    Thank you so very much. You are so kind to give us notes too !!! May you be truly blessed for your generosity

  • @aalianaseer4222
    @aalianaseer4222 Před 3 lety +11

    This man deserve alot more audience

  • @nickkelly8475
    @nickkelly8475 Před 11 lety +3

    Hey, thank you. I found a copy of "we make the road by walking" (dialogue between paulo freire and myles horton) one day and it changed my life. This is a really helpful review of PotO. For anyone stumbling here I recommend downloading the linked document as a really nice 'cheat sheet' as to what the book covers.

  • @RogerLewisGuitarPlayer
    @RogerLewisGuitarPlayer Před 8 lety +1

    This si a fantastic series I have come back many times for a refresher and recommended it to another freind again today. Thankyou for taking the time to make this important analysis of Frierres Pedagodgy of the oppressed.

  • @arsalangadehi9319
    @arsalangadehi9319 Před 6 lety +1

    thanks for such simply analysed videos dr Jason J Campbell.

  • @leatherpants163
    @leatherpants163 Před 3 lety +1

    Thanks to my social studies teacher

  • @IsxaaqAcademy
    @IsxaaqAcademy Před rokem

    This type of content is rich and only for those who are awake

  • @M.T....
    @M.T.... Před 12 lety +1

    Jackpot, this video is a treasure chest of information, this is my first time stumbling upon this channel, I just would like to say, thank you man, I really admire what you're doing.

  • @TheAdnan898
    @TheAdnan898 Před 12 lety +3

    I came in contact with Paulo Freire's work through a book I borrowed randomly from my universality library. And since then, i am not the same man not even near it. My whole mind thinking concept is changed. This book was an eye opener for me and i will re-read again, and again and again till i die. VIVA PAULO and thanks for the vid by the way Dr Jason. SUCH A BRILLIANT ROLE MODEL AND EXAMPLE TO HUMANITY. WARM GREETINGS to you SIR all the way from LONDON. :)

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 11 lety +1

    Thanks for watching

  • @sashwabaam
    @sashwabaam Před 12 lety +1

    Hi Jason, I really like how this compliments one of my readings in my theories class on Marx and Engels "The Bourgeois and the proletariat" I'm trying to teach my mom about our society, and educate her on all this important stuff. I believe most people don't know their oppressed, unless they know how the system works and what it means to be oppressed.... Since I got a lot out of what you taught me, I'm planning to share your videos with my mom too. Thanks for making it free and available!!!:)

  • @ChristopherBower
    @ChristopherBower Před 9 lety +1

    WOOT TOOT! We're bringing you to Boise State's campus this semester! I have never been so excited about one of our club's speakers! Thank you infinitely for all that you are and all that you do!

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

      Christopher Bower The Paulo Freire's theories ended the education in Brazil! We lost in education, even for African countries. The Brazil is capitalist, but our education is socialist / communist. Do not do this to their nation.

    • @ChristopherBower
      @ChristopherBower Před 9 lety +1

      narcelio portela Hello, my Friend! I am terribly sorry, but I am not entirely sure I understand your claim and its aims. Essentially all state-based education systems are democratically socialist. So, that is just how it is, because it is government funded. If you are saying we should privatize education, then I have MAJOR issues with that.

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

      Christopher Bower A solução é dá-la a quem deseja Entende? Se um jovem é obrigado, por força de lei, a frequentar uma instituição de ensino isso não está correto. A educação deve ser oferecida a todos, porém NÃO OBRIGATÓRIA. Excelente profissionais brasileiros em diversas áreas do conhecimento são trabalhadores braçais nos USA. Adiantou tanta dedicação aos estudos? Para construir uma parede , desentupir uma pia, limpar neve,cortar árvore, não há necessidade de 12 ou 20 anos de estudos , incluindo curso universitário. SOU PROFESSOR E GANHO 500 DÓLARES POR MÊS AQUI NO BRASIL.PEDREIROS, GARÇONS, LIXEIROS, GANHAM MAIS DO QUE EU AQUI NO BRASIL!

    • @ChristopherBower
      @ChristopherBower Před 9 lety

      .

    • @ChristopherBower
      @ChristopherBower Před 9 lety

      narcelio portela
      I am still not entirely sure I understand what you are saying, though I imagine that is just because of the language barrier, and I apologize for that. However, of course education should be mandatory. Of course. At least through until adulthood. I do not see what this worry has to do with Paulo Freire at all though? Science, facts, demonstrable data, empirically proven statistics show that a liberal arts education makes a better society. Period. Of course technical and vocational jobs do not need a PhD, but no one is saying they do. Your comments are fun, but they are missing the entire point of everything Freire is actually addressing. I appreciate your concerns and the time you have taken to share them, but they are completely irrelevant and another issue entirely. Hopefully I am getting at the crux of what you are putting out there.

  • @SwatiAbrol95
    @SwatiAbrol95 Před 11 lety +3

    I'd like to say, you sir, have saved me. I couldn't thank you enough. I really appreciate this video! Thanks so much.

  • @precioussjg8677
    @precioussjg8677 Před 10 lety +4

    Thank you for this. I'm reading this AFTER graduating college and been wanting to discuss it with someone. Wish I had known about it sooner. Freire's work is life changing for me.

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety +1

      Precious Sipin The Paulo Freire's theories ended the education in Brazil! We lost in education, even for African countries. The Brazil is capitalist, but our education is socialist / communist. Do not do this to their nation.

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety +1

      Precious Sipin "There is no originality in what he says is the same conversation ever. His alternative to the global outlook is musty rhetoric. It is a political and ideological theorist, not an educator. "(John Egerton," Searching for Freire, "Saturday Review of Education, April 1973.)

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety +2

      Precious Sipin "It leaves basic questions unanswered. Could not the 'awareness' is another way to numb and manipulate the masses? What new social controls, outside the simple verbalismos will be used to implement its social policy? As Freire combines its humanistic and liberating ideology with the logical conclusion of his pedagogy, the violence of revolutionary change? "(David M. Fetterman," Review of The Politics of Education, "American Anthropologist, March 1986.)

    • @sandrasousa7616
      @sandrasousa7616 Před 5 lety +1

      @@narcelioportela1932 in 2018 good answer. I am brasilian and agree with you.

  • @Dragonrdh
    @Dragonrdh Před 8 měsíci

    Thank you, Dr Jason.

  • @thethoughtexperience1979
    @thethoughtexperience1979 Před 4 lety +2

    Thank you so much for these videos!

  • @Xziz10ths
    @Xziz10ths Před 14 lety +1

    i love this information. more people should watch your videos i swear.

  • @teachatami45
    @teachatami45 Před 4 lety +1

    I am happy to see you bro

  • @Rosquilliam2
    @Rosquilliam2 Před 12 lety +1

    I was told about this book and decided to do some research. Thanks for posting these videos...time for some enlightenment!

  • @check2r
    @check2r Před 12 lety +1

    Thank you Jason. I am a development student. This really helped. Keep up the good work.

  • @MaestraProductions
    @MaestraProductions Před 3 lety +1

    Thank you!!

  • @cafetechne
    @cafetechne Před rokem

    Great lecture bro! Few rec's: get a small diaphram condenser mic and an audio interface because the sound is really important for blind "viewers". Great work--keep it up!

  • @syllevy4032
    @syllevy4032 Před 6 lety +2

    Thank you so much! Your videos and notes were very useful! It was amazing to see such organized notes, I appreciate that you invested your time to create this lecture.

  • @totonow6955
    @totonow6955 Před 5 lety +1

    Jason Campbell sounds like Joseph Campbell I'm all in!

  • @mayagornhisoka29
    @mayagornhisoka29 Před 12 lety +3

    this book is banned in my country, Thailand
    really good vid thank you :D

  • @jimthecheesecrumpet
    @jimthecheesecrumpet Před 4 lety +2

    Thank you so much for this, it’s super helpful.

  • @NetHetepTaNesert
    @NetHetepTaNesert Před 12 lety +1

    Outstanding presentation! Thank you for doing this. These are a must watch video series.

  • @narmadanandakumar7783
    @narmadanandakumar7783 Před 2 lety

    You have taken a lot of efforts ... Thank you so much

  • @lmpm002
    @lmpm002 Před 11 lety +1

    These videos are amazing, they help clarify many points! Thank you for taking your time; gracias!

  • @macmuna3027
    @macmuna3027 Před 11 lety +1

    well its true but it helps alot.pedagogy of the oppressed is extremely interesting,i think the summary of it will be better.well i want to go into a little adventure by summarizing the book,hope i m still on track case m not please let me know

  • @LonoAurora97
    @LonoAurora97 Před 11 lety +1

    Wow!!! all the same topics we're going over in class!! All along I could have followed your videos :( semester is almost over now

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

    "Some see the 'awareness' almost like a new religion and Paulo Freire as its high priest. Others see it as pure emptiness and Paulo Freire as the main windbag. "(David Millwood," Conscientization and What It's All About, "New Internationalist, June 1974.)

  • @ryanmacleodnet
    @ryanmacleodnet Před 9 lety +2

    I did a google search- here are the pdf notes that I could find: www.academia.edu/1738898/Paulo_Freire_Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed_1.1

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety +1

    "It leaves basic questions unanswered. Could not the 'awareness' is another way to numb and manipulate the masses? What new social controls, outside the simple verbalismos will be used to implement its social policy? As Freire combines its humanistic and liberating ideology with the logical conclusion of his pedagogy, the violence of revolutionary change? "(David M. Fetterman," Review of The Politics of Education, "American Anthropologist, March 1986.)

  • @sfatani3
    @sfatani3 Před 11 lety +2

    keep up the good work. Thank you

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 12 lety +1

    @Anamahnaz ...well said...this is global...

  • @ahenaali2252
    @ahenaali2252 Před 8 lety +6

    Hello Dr. Campbell. Thank you for this video series. I have just started listening to it. The link to your notes is no longer functional. Please can you update the link? Best wishes.

  • @bri43986
    @bri43986 Před 11 lety

    Combining Freire's focus on critical though of a persons reality to a modern version of social critical thinking such as Tony Wagner global achievement gap could provide new formats for teaching critical thinking in a standardized form.

  • @zibaali
    @zibaali Před 10 lety +1

    Thank you so much for the videos.

  • @joanneharvey1902
    @joanneharvey1902 Před 12 lety

    I have an exam coming up soon on this - this has been really helpful!

  • @saxman0871
    @saxman0871 Před 13 lety +1

    Thank you for the education. It has changed my perspective forever.

  • @ESLDiploma
    @ESLDiploma Před 5 lety +1

    Hi Dr. Campbell, I tried to download your notes but the link s=doesn't seem to work. Is there another way of accessing them by any chance? Thanks

  • @adjoaayye
    @adjoaayye Před 4 lety +2

    Hi Dr. Campbell - are you able to give a guide on dividing these videos by chapter? I am sharing your playlist with my book club and would like to figure out which videos to watch based on the 4 chapters of the book. Any guidance is appreciated - I couldn't figure out how to DM you. Yet. :)

    • @drjasonjcampbell
      @drjasonjcampbell  Před 4 lety +1

      There should be links from the pdf, which isn't negating the ability to divide like u said. So I might do that in future videos. Thanks for that.

    • @adjoaayye
      @adjoaayye Před 4 lety

      @@drjasonjcampbell thank you for replying! I got you. These lectures are so good, thank you so much for providing clarity of Freire.

  • @brianum5
    @brianum5 Před 7 lety

    Dr. Campbell might you consider a series of videos on your two favourite books that could be used as a practical application of the authors' theories in society today? A practicum focused on neoliberalism for example. I think this is where you have a lot to offer.

  • @Lbiuzu
    @Lbiuzu Před 7 lety +1

    I am so happy you did this and I got the PDF. 🤗😁😊☺🤗!!!

    • @EdReggi
      @EdReggi Před 7 lety +1

      How did you get the notes?

    • @Lbiuzu
      @Lbiuzu Před 7 lety

      From the links on the descriptions.

  • @georgethomasdavisjr7171
    @georgethomasdavisjr7171 Před 9 lety +3

    I kinda have to disagree with the "recognition of Humanity" interpretation. I interpret that as the humanity which provides the sense of agency he outlines in the rest of the book. So that agency is not just "towards" others, but "within" everyone. That everyone has the life given power and responsibility of personal agency, and therefore personal sovereignty.

    • @georgethomasdavisjr7171
      @georgethomasdavisjr7171 Před 9 lety +3

      So therefore it is possible for the person to "dehumanize" themselves through the dehumanization of others. To accept dehumanization is a plausible action as well, not just having dehumanization thrust upon you. Accepting illiteracy denies humanization and leaves the doorway open to dehumanization. Accepting the responsibility for welfare, education, health, etc to be shouldered by institutions rather than personally handled [and yes this branches a bit into Ivan Illich] leads toward the facility of dehumanization. Any lack of agency can be relinquished as well as taken.

  • @NuncaParaEver
    @NuncaParaEver Před 10 lety +1

    This is great! Thank you so much! I really appreciate the notes also!

  • @twidilidee8303
    @twidilidee8303 Před 8 lety +3

    Education is for the most part compulsory attendance at a govt approved institution staffed by govt employees, or govt certified employees. PF speaks of a "banking model", but this is better called a prison model.

    • @jayfawn8478
      @jayfawn8478 Před 6 lety

      twidili dee Foucault is strong on this one....

    • @MrVivi0001
      @MrVivi0001 Před 3 lety

      Freires model to me does not sound any better, he just replaces government by the number system model with indoctrination to his perticural ideology.

  • @ahmedkhawaji5066
    @ahmedkhawaji5066 Před 8 lety +1

    Hello
    thanks a lot for this wonderful effort of this interesting materials. Can you please specify where I can find the notes PDF?

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety +1

    "[In the book of Freire] do not come even close of such oppressed. Who are they? The definition of Freire seems to be 'anyone who is not an oppressor'. Vagueness, redundancies, tautologies, endless repetitions cause boredom, not action "(Rozanne Knudson, Review of Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Library Journal, April, 1971).

  • @joplindream
    @joplindream Před 12 lety +1

    Really appreciate the effort! :)

  • @jayfawn8478
    @jayfawn8478 Před 5 lety +1

    can someone explain this paper about sociology of
    education
    by
    Gary Dworkin, Jeanne Ballantine, Ari Antikainen, Maria Ligia
    Barbosa, David Konstantinovskiy, Lawrence J Saha,
    Shaheeda Essack, Jason Chang, Marios Vryonides and
    António Teodoro ,This is very hard to read and understand

  • @stevemorgan4494
    @stevemorgan4494 Před 8 lety +1

    Thanks mate ....... proppa.

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety +2

    "There is there a single review signed by rightist or others person to Freire practices. Only judgments of those who gave years of life following the creature's teachings, and saw with their eyes Propios the pedagogy of the oppressed was nothing, after all, a pedagogy of oppression. ''

  • @consciousnessevo2012
    @consciousnessevo2012 Před 12 lety

    hey, thank you for the video, and in general the channel. a friend recommended it to me and i find it extremely interesting. im going to read pedagogy of the oppressed for myself before i continue watching. this book is exactly what ive been meaning to read!
    thanks again!

  • @4utumnjoy
    @4utumnjoy Před 9 lety +4

    Hi,
    Thanks for the video.
    I couldn't access the notes. Where might I find them?
    Thanks,
    Autumn

    • @TheBalletMonster
      @TheBalletMonster Před 8 lety +6

      +Autumn Florencio-Wain www.academia.edu/1738898/Paulo_Freire_Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed_1.1

  • @CODfreak123100
    @CODfreak123100 Před 8 lety +3

    hey,
    Thanks for the video! i would love to get the pdf without signing in academia... could you send them?
    best regards!

  • @Mary-xu2lc
    @Mary-xu2lc Před 8 lety

    This might come off cheesy, but in your description of 'Humanization' at the very beginning of your PDF text, I was thinking it might be good to include a bullet point about ''expressing affection''. (If this is a 'living text', after all, that can have suggestions from it's receptacles. :P )
    Thank you for sharing this, this is very well thought out. :)

  • @BeLeeZy
    @BeLeeZy Před 11 lety +1

    Hey thanks for making this shit man. Pedagogy of the Oppressed is such a life changing book. So sad about the situation down in Tuscon. Anyway thanks

  • @EdReggi
    @EdReggi Před 7 lety +1

    Can we still get the notes? Anyone have them? His website is down.

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 11 lety +1

    thanks for that

  • @jolinedickinsonart1098
    @jolinedickinsonart1098 Před 9 lety +1

    Good day Dr. Campell. I'm from South Africa and find your analysis very helpful since we're busy with this work. I'm struggling to access your web page...

  • @englisharc
    @englisharc Před 6 lety

    Please explain us... Michael W. Apple :can education change society

  • @sherwanameen7952
    @sherwanameen7952 Před 9 lety +1

    Thanks a lot it is very helpful

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

      sherwan Taha The Paulo Freire's theories ended the education in Brazil! We lost in education, even for African countries. The Brazil is capitalist, but our education is socialist / communist. Do not do this to their nation.

    • @sherwanameen7952
      @sherwanameen7952 Před 9 lety +2

      I am not sure what you mean about your comment Freire was and still and remain the leader of the aim of education and the TRUE aim of teaching and learning !
      I was totally a strict educator as an ESOL teahcer from Iraq BUT after reading the genius Freire's book I am really regretted to my behaviors with my students. We need to knwo the aim of education and to think for a better relationship between students and teacher !!
      thx

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

      sherwan Taha Não faça isso. As ideias de esquerda estão a acabar com o Brasil.Este homem era formado em direito. Nunca cursou pedagogia o qualquer curso na educação. escreveu para operários, camponeses, nunca para crianças ou adolescentes. Pregava a Revolução socialista. Queria dividir o dinheiro dos ricos para os pobres......Morreu rico, milionário com seus livros publicados em vários idiomas.

    • @narcelioportela1932
      @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

      sherwan Taha Do not do that. Left's ideas are to end the Brasil.Este man was a law degree. I never attended any course in the pedagogy education. He wrote to workers, peasants, never to children or adolescents. Preached socialist revolution. Wanted to split the money from the rich to the poor ...... He died rich, millionaire with his books published in several languages.

    • @sherwanameen7952
      @sherwanameen7952 Před 9 lety

      OK everyone is free and independent in thinking I have my own style of teaching
      Hope Brasil is becoming more prosperous in education!

  • @meccasmom100
    @meccasmom100 Před 9 lety +4

    where can I find the pdf notes?

    • @johntrauger68
      @johntrauger68 Před 9 lety +2

      heaven cisse
      Excellent question.
      Have you found them yet?

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

    "The Pedagogy of the Oppressed does help to understand or revolutions or education in general." (Wayne J. Urban, "Comments on Paulo Freire", paper presented to the American Educational Studies Association in Chicago, February 23, 1972.)

  • @aprilmackay8254
    @aprilmackay8254 Před 7 lety

    Thank You for Sharing this important Text. Would yo ever make videos on Freire's "The Pedagogy of Hope"?

  • @lwnystudio
    @lwnystudio Před 7 lety +1

    T
    he download link is giving an error.

  • @hollister927
    @hollister927 Před 12 lety

    yes! this is awesome! i have this book and would love to read and watch along with your analysis! THANKS! Keep it up!

  • @hassanpatel4670
    @hassanpatel4670 Před 5 lety

    Hey Doc. Would you be ok with us downloading these as mp3s for our commute to listen to?

  • @eagyl56
    @eagyl56 Před 8 lety +1

    am also unable to get your notes to follow. how can I be able to receive them?

    • @Anees11v
      @Anees11v Před 8 lety +2

      www.academia.edu/1738898/Paulo_Freire_Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed_1.1

  • @Anamahnaz
    @Anamahnaz Před 12 lety

    Not only in the USA Dear ElementSid115 !!!

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

    “A ‘conscientização’ é um projeto de indivíduos de classe alta dirigido à população de classe baixa. Somada a essa arrogância vem a irritação recorrente com ‘aquelas pessoas’ que teimosamente recusam a salvação tão benevolentemente oferecida: ‘Como podem ser tão cegas?’” (Peter L. Berger, Pyramids of Sacrifice, Basic BOOKS, 1974.)

  • @eagyl56
    @eagyl56 Před 8 lety

    need notes please

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 13 lety

    @postulate2240 BAAM!! :-)

  • @LaPicaflor
    @LaPicaflor Před 11 lety

    Can you stop the umm every 10 seconds?

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 12 lety

    students now are passive. They wait for the Ah ha. rather than learn how to discover the ah ha! They have to learn it's not the educators responsibility to give them insight, that's not what we do. Todays student, even university students are almost wholly incapable of independent though. They need too much tutelage too much guidance. They've been coddled in every other aspect of society and our current education system does the same. Everybody's a winner. Everybody's smart. which is a lie.

  • @teachatami45
    @teachatami45 Před 4 lety

    Background is necessary but boy man you have to work on your comm skills

  • @airyfairy4
    @airyfairy4 Před 6 lety +3

    GET TO THE POINT!!

  • @drjasonjcampbell
    @drjasonjcampbell  Před 12 lety +1

    :-)

  • @ArthurCor-ts2bg
    @ArthurCor-ts2bg Před 5 lety

    Too much of instructions less content

  • @313GodIsLove
    @313GodIsLove Před 10 lety

    He's a cutie :-)

  • @STLEO1
    @STLEO1 Před 5 lety +1

    The 22 downthumbs it obvious you are sleep

  • @blahbl4hblahtoo
    @blahbl4hblahtoo Před 10 lety

    Funny...I just watched an hour long video of Noam Chomsky pronouncing it another way...correct yourself before you correct others.

  • @lmpm002
    @lmpm002 Před 11 lety

    He's Brazilian, so his name would not be pronounced in American English!

  • @narcelioportela1932
    @narcelioportela1932 Před 9 lety

    "It leaves basic questions unanswered. Could not the 'awareness' is another way to numb and manipulate the masses? What new social controls, outside the simple verbalismos will be used to implement its social policy? As Freire combines its humanistic and liberating ideology with the logical conclusion of his pedagogy, the violence of revolutionary change? "(David M. Fetterman," Review of The Politics of Education, "American Anthropologist, March 1986.)