Video

Dear delarosomccay Thank you very much for your comment about the values, the values are non-standard in the video, in my teachings I use a software called "diploma" to organize the problems. I randomize the values so that each students get different values on his own exam, so that the students cannot just copy from each other the answers. they have to go through the calculation to get the answers.

Dear simonlyons5681, Thank you very much for your comment. I do not quite understand the question, what is the 1mA current. what are the two LEDs, you use the two LED at the same time or what? what do you mean by the error? Please write your question in more details, I will get you back as soon as possible.

Dear shifra3203 Thank you for your comment, Yes, the prism angle is the same as apex angle.

Thank you very much for your comment. The circuit you suggested is widely available over the internet, that circuit has only two parameters: Vi and RE, the current is given by Vi/RE. The maximum current is limited. What if you need a very large current without complicating the circuit? for example, you have a 10 by 10 LED matrix, then you need a very large current. In this circuit, by adding only two resistors RF and R1 (not an extra op-amp, not an extra transistor), you are adding another route for the current flowing through the LED. i.e. in this case the total current flowing through the LED is the sum of the current going thought RE and the current going through R1. By choosing proper values of RE, RF, and R1, you can obtain quite large current without adding more trouble. To see this, we can rewrite the current formulas as I_LED= Vi/RE+(RE+RF)/(R1*RE)*Vi, i.e. the first term is the current in the circuit you suggested, the second term is extra current. If we choose RF>>RE, then the current formula can be simplified as I_LED= (1+RF/R1)*Vi/RE, i.e. we get a current gain factor (1+RF/R1). Please see "3 calculation examples" in the description part below this video. Having RF and R1 is the beauty of this circuit.

Thank you for your comments, I learned this diagram from my father, I am using it for my students in Motion and Energy course, it helped my students a lot.

There is no book for this...

Dear Sir or Madam, What is the current needed to go through the laser diode, what is the forward voltage for the laser diode?

​@@stemformulasI need from 0 to 100 mA. The forwarded voltage is around 1.5 volts and the laser is anode grounded

@@cristianvargas8095 What is the voltage of your power source? Do you have a dual power supply? or single power supply? We can design a fixed 100 mA constant current diver for the laser with anode grounded.

Dear RexxSchneider Thank you for your comment, your calculation is correct. Very good!

I disagree, the explanation is very important to show how this circuit acts as a current source.

@@mmh1922 Rubbish. My description above shows exactly how the circuit behaves as a current source and takes 30 seconds to read. Which part of it didn't you understand? Exactly what did you find missing that was present in the video, apart from all the unnecessary algebra?

@@RexxSchneiderI respect your right to express your opinion, however, as a reader, I decide what is important to me and what is not.

@@mmh1922 Of course you can decide whatever you want for you. And I can decide to call you out when you're spouting nonsense. Not for your benefit, naturally, but for the benefit of everyone else who reads your misleading comment and wants to decide if it has any value. That's why I asked you "Which part of it didn't you understand? Exactly what did you find missing that was present in the video, apart from all the unnecessary algebra?" Your inability to address those basic questions are surely the clearest indication to any observer that your initial comment was devoid of merit.

Dear Sir, Thank you very much for your comment. For your situation, you can choose the following: RE=0.5 Ohm (high power resistor). If you use a MOSFET, the voltage drop between the Source and the Drain normally will be 0.5 V, (less than 1 V) So the total voltage drop will be Vcc=2.7 V (laser diode) +0.5V (MOSFET) + (0.85A*0.5 Ohm) =3.6V. So, a single Li Ion battery (3.7V) is enough. As for MOSFET, you can use IRF540NF from Aliexpress, it is fairly cheep. Be careful, do not hurt your eyes from such a powerful laser. Wear a goggle in your project.

Thank you very much

Dear Nara49 Veera, Thank you very much for your comment. When I say that the circuit is no more working, when I_LED=14 mA, in the example, I mean the current was not kept the same as that flowing through a wire (no LED) or one LED, 41 mA. Ideal constant current source should keep the current constant no matter how many LEDs are there in series, always 41 mA, as in our example, but in reality such an ideal constant current source never exits, so It is necessary to tell how many LEDs can drive for a current source. We gave the formula in the video. In our example if the circuit gives 14 mA, (lower than 41 mA), we say that the source is no longer working, whether LED glowing or not is not relevant ! The key is that the current is out of control. Different LED has different properties, all we need is to supply the LEDs with controlled current I_LED. this is the circuit all about with formulas. Probably what you mean is that I should give a more realistic example with I_LED= a few 100 uA instead of 41 mA. If this is what you meant then you are totally correct. STEM Formulas

In a practical situation, if the diodes do not light, it means there is no flow of current through them. Probably, I think, if a variable resistive load existed, then a situation may arise in which the current source will not be able to support the intended 41 mA. Thank you for your reply. It was a good step by step explanation that helped me to learn about current source using op amp.

It is also interesting if you simply place a variable resistor to replace the LEDs in the circuit. When the resistance is zero, then the current through the resistor is 41 mA, when you increase the resistance of the resistor the current is kept at 41 mA for some time, when you increase further, the current drops. This is the usual behavior for a real life constant current source. Constant current source feels comfortable when the load is shorted, but it feels terrible when the load is open, R_load=∞, the voltage =I*R_load=∞, but the source does not have infinite voltage to supply! (whereas voltage source feels comfortable when the load is open, R_load=∞, but feels terrible if you short the output leads, in this case the current supposed to be infinite, but it can not deliver infinite current.)

@@stemformulas Then, perhaps, as the resistance increases beyond a limit, the current starts decreasing to support the supply voltage limitation. It is interesting. I will try to make a practical circuit when I get some time.

Thank you very much for your comment. I totally agree, by putting a second transistor in Darlington pair configuration, I_C=β_1*β_2*I_B, if β_1= β_2=100, then I_C=10000*I_B, or I_B=0.0001*I_C≈0

Dear Blue Ocean, That is right: pin 2, pin 6, and one lead of the cap all connected to the wiper of the pot, the other lead of the cap is connected to ground.

Thank you very much for your comment. First, please read the description section below the video ( I just added a description text there). There are two ways to get Vi, the simple way is to use a Zener diode in series with a resistor, one lead of the resistor connected to Vcc, another lead of the resistor connect to the cathode of the Zener, and the Anode of the Zener connect to system ground. Vi is connected to cathode. Now you need to determine the resistor value: To make the Zener working properly, make sure you have 5 mA to 10 mA current flowing through the Zener. then the value of the resistor is determined by the following formula: Vcc=I*R+Vz, take I=10 mA=0.01A, if we have Vcc=18V, Vz=8V, then 18V=0.01A*R+8V, then R=(18V-8V)/0.01A=1000Ω=1KΩ. The other way is to use a micro controller to obtain PWM, so you can adjust the brightness of the LED's by a push button.

I am working on a video on PID algorithm (concepts behind the formulas and numerical examples with MATLAB).

Dear Enigma758, Thank you very much for your comments. The question you raised is vey good. We should clarify here: 1. Electronics is not an exact science like mechanics, for examples, To make CORRECT APPROXIMAITON is a good step to solve any electronic problem, this is due to the fact that semiconductor device is not linear device of resistor type. For example, take any two leads from a transistor, say, B and E, V_BE can not be written as linear equation: V_BE=(some kind of resistance)*Current ! when we study electronics we need to make approximations, but good ones. 2. The transistor in our circuit is not in cutoff region, Cutoff means all three currents I_B (base current) , I_E (emitter current ) and I_C (collector current) are all zeros. 3. The transistor in our circuit is in saturation region: I_B is quite large in terms of the range of I_B, I_C is large and V_CE is very small. The transistor works as closed switch, C and E looks like closed wire, and V_CE≈0. (ideal case). 4. When we say "I_B is zero", we mean that when we compare I_B with I_C, I_B can be neglected. Exactly speaking, I_E=I_B+I_C by KCL. or I_E=I_C/β+I_C, take β (hFE in your notation)≈100, so I_E≈I_C. i.e. we assumed I_B≈0, a valid approximation that does not cause significant errors. (point 1). Thank you very much for your attention.

@@stemformulas I think you are really just saying that I_B doesn't add in much current even when the transistor is in saturation so that I_LED can be equated to I_O. Thank you for your response.

Exactly.

I am very glad to hear that. To find schematics from circuit boards is a very enjoyable and challenging task.

Thank you for your comment, here is the link for the file, it is from Zakary Boucher: drive.google.com/drive/folders/1yFowng7ociO5h8MNHmJB4CGivYZ8YfNA?usp=sharing

Could you please re-type your question clearly?

@@stemformulas How do we use the normalizations condition to find C? (Translated from Hindi)

Please watch the video "Normalization of eigenfunction of momentum operator" on STEM Formulas

@@JyotiRani-pt3tr thnx could you sir explain

Dear Jyoti Rani, Thank you very much for your message, I was wondering if you could tell me the names of textbooks about Quantum Mechanics you are using?

Dear Sir, sorry for replying you so late, but I just find this message recently. Here is link for the file: drive.google.com/drive/folders/12BLjuROGAOJURZnYDDd9FlIXr5TdrkHT?usp=sharing